Implications of historic scholarship

and recent research

Behaviourism

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. Changes in behaviour are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.

Scope/Application:

Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction).

Example:

By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps

2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback

3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement

4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles:

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective

2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")

3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning

According to the behaviourist psychology language is considered as simply a form of behaviour, to be learned through the formation of correct habits. Habit formation is a process in which the application of rules plays no part.

The audio-lingual method was developed based on the principles of Behaviourism. Technology such as the tape recorder, the language lab, radio, TV and film strip projectors were all developed in ways that facilitated the use of this new method.  The Audiolingual syllabus consists of a graded list of sentence patterns, which, although not necessarily labbeled as such, are grammatical in origin. These patterns form the basis of pattern-practice drills, the distinguishing feature of Audiolingual classroom practice.

Implications:

Grammatical structures are very carefully sequenced from basic to more complex. Students are not necessarily expected to understand grammar and grammar rules. Language learning is habit formation and pattern learning; it is seen as conditioning, brought about through repetition, shaping and reinforcement. Thus, mimicry of forms and memorization of certain sentence patterns are used extensively to present rules inductively. A variety of drill types is practiced with the aim of minimizing learners' errors, which are viewed as the result of interference from the first language and demand correction. The focus of instruction rarely moves beyond the sentence level.