Scholars

The psychologist, Jerome Bruner, holds that while there very well may be, as Chomsky suggests, a Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, there must also be a Language Acquisition Support System, or LASS. He is referring to the family and entourage of the child.

If we watch closely the way a child interacts with the adults around her, we will see that they constantly provide opportunities for her to acquire her mother - tongue. Mother or father provide ritualised scenarios - the ceremony of having a bath, eating a meal, getting dressed, or playing a game - in which the phases of interaction are rapidly recognised and predicted by the infant.

It is within such clear and emotionally charged contexts that the child first becomes aware of the way in which language is used. The utterances of the mother or father are themselves ritualised, and accompany the activity in predictable, and comprehensible ways. Gradually, the child moves from a passive position to an active one, taking over the movements of the caretaker, and, eventually, the language as well.

Bruner cites the example of a well-known childhood game, in which the mother, or other caretaker, disappears and then reappears. Through this ritual, which at first may be accompanied by simple noises, or 'Bye-bye .... Hello', and later by lengthier commentaries, the child is both learning about separation and return and being offered a context within which language, charged with emotive content, may be acquired. It is this reciprocal, and affective nature of language that Chomsky appears to leave out of his hypotheses.

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:

(2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner,

(4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning.

'Every LAD' wrote Jerome Bruner, 'needs his LASS. Bruner takes his inspiration from the Russian specialist in child-development, Lev Vygotsky. In Vygotsky's view, adults do not help children by telling them how to do something, but by helping them do it, when they are ready. The adult provides the scaffolding which allows the child to erect his personal castle.

So it is with language. Bruner agrees that there must be an innate linguistic capacity, an inner programme which enables the child to construct the grammar. But she is able to do this because the parents or other caretakers create for her a world in which the meanings of what is said are clear and important for her. Through the regularities and rituals of the child's daily routines, interactions and play, the conditions are put in place for the meanings of what is said to be near to transparent ; this, then, is how the child comes to language.

Moreover, in games like Peek-a-Boo, the child learns more than the syntax of the language, more than the words she needs to play the game ; she also learns something about how to take turns, how to construct a sequence of interaction so that it is meaningful and interesting. In this way, learning a language is also learning how to become a social being.

Teachers tend to like Bruner's ideas about learning ; they seem warmer, more hopeful, than Chomsky's innate grammar constructor. But be careful - we cannot assume that the warmer vision is necessarily the more accurate. Not long ago, I heard one of the children of Fred and Rosemary West being interviewed on the radio. Since her early days she had been subjected to cruelty and torture - but she was articulate and expressive. Her parents had not given her love, but they had, somehow or other, given her language.

Language is not acquired in a vacuum ; children are helped on their way to acquisition - and in particular by their parents. Although the ways in which parents interact with their children are not the same in all groups and in all cultures, nevertheless, children are provided with a series of scenarios and scripts which enable them to comprehend and absorb the language that they hear around them.

Bruner observes that the process of constructing knowledge of the world is not done in isolation but rather within a social context. The child is a social being and, through social life, acquires a framework for interpreting experiences (Bruner & Haste, 1987). Bruner (1966) also notes that "there is no unique sequence for all learners, and the optimum in any particular case will depend upon a variety of factors, including past learning, stage of development, nature of the material, and individual differences" (p. 49). Effective curriculum then, must provide many opportunities and choices for children (Anderson & Pavan, 1993). Within the multi-age setting, opportunities exist for children to make choices about their learning experiences. In addition, the variety of teaching methods used in the multi-age classroom provides opportunities for children to construct knowledge in a multitude of ways.

Conclusion

Chomsky, then, sees the child as essentially autonomous in the creation of language. She is programmed to learn, and will learn so long as minimal social and economic conditions are realised. In Bruner's version, the program is indeed in place, but the social conditions become more important. The child is still an active participant, is still essentially creative in her approach to language acquisition, but the role of the parents and other caretakers is also seen as primordial. Finally, Macnamara sees language learning as being subordinate to and dependent upon the capacity to understand and participate in social activities.

"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized."

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

SUMMARY

Chomsky - LAD - UG

Bruner - every LAD needs his LASS.

Parents provide clear, predictable repeated situations in which meaning of utterances is clear to the child.

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930's, is most often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of cultural and social contexts in learning and supports a discovery model of learning. This type of model places the teacher in an active role while the students' mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of discovery.

The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).

A second aspects of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). Furthermore, full development during the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalised and allow "inner speech".

Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behaviour begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

· Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child's level of thinking.

Vygotskian Principles in the Classroom

Out of school experiences should be related to school experiences. Pictures, news clips, and personal stories incorporated into classroom activities provides the students with a since of oneness between their community and learning.

In conclusion, Vygotsky contends that language is the key to all development and words play a central part not only in the development of thought but in the growth of cognition as a whole. Within this framework, child language development, thus acquisition, can be viewed as the result of social interaction.

Piaget

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was interested in biology (molluscs), philosophy and child psychology. Most of his time, however, was spend on elaborating a theory of knowledge - how a child comes to know his or her world. He is renowned for constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning. Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures--in other words, mental "maps," schemes, or networked concepts for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her environment. Piaget further attested that a child's cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities. He is categorized as a key player in the study of cognitive development, as well as a constructivist. Jean Piaget began to study human development in the 1920s. His proposed a development theory has been widely discussed in both psychology and education fields. To learn, Piaget stressed the holistic approach. A child constructs understanding through many channels: reading, listening, exploring and experiencing his or her environment.

Over a period of six decades, Jean Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget had a background in both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines influences his theories and research of child development.

The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development. Cognitive structures change through the processes of adaptation: assimilation and accomodation. Assimilation involves the interpretation of events in terms of existing cognitive structure whereas accomodation refers to changing the cognitive structure to make sense of the environment. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accomodation.

There are four primary cognitive structures (i.e., development stages) according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Approximate Age	Stage	Major Developments
Birth to 2 years	Sensorimotor	Infants use sensory and motor capabilities to explore and gain understanding of their environments. This is the stage where a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight (object permanence).
2 to 7 years	Preoperational	Children begin to use symbols. They respond to objects and events according to how they appear to be. The child is not yet able to conceptualise abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
7 to 11 years	Concrete operations	Children begin to think logically. As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualise, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects.
11 years and beyond	Formal operations	They begin to think about thinking. Thought is systematic and abstract. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.

A child will develop through each of these stages until he or she can reason logically. The learner is advanced through three mechanisms.

Assimilation

This refers to the way in which a child transforms new information so that it makes sense within their existing knowledge base. That is, a child tries to understand new knowledge in terms of their existing knowledge. For example, a baby who is given a new knowledge may grasp or suck on that object in the same way that he or she grasped or sucked other objects.

Accomodation

This happens when a child changes his or her cognitive structure in an attempt to understand new information. For example, the child learns to grasp a new object in a different way, or learns that the new object should not be sucked. In that way, the child has adapted his or her way of thinking to a new experience.

Taken together, assimilation and accomodation make up adaptation, which refers to the child's ability to adapt to his or her environment.

Piagetian Principals in the Classroom

Principles of learning
What are some guiding principles of constructivist thinking that we must keep in mind when we consider our role as educators? I will outline a few ideas, all predicated on the belief that learning consists of individuals' constructed meanings

1 Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner s engaging with the world.

2 People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the chronology of dates of a series of historical events, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

3 The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands^. (Dewey called this reflective activity.)

4 Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical level. researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level. there is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vigotsky, that language and learning are inextricably intertwined.

5 Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education, as Dewey pointed out, is directed towards isolating the learner from all social interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the objective material to be learned. In contrast, progressive education (to continue to use Dewey's formulation) recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.

6 Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

7 One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.

8 It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.

9 Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This ideas of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us, even by the most severe and direct teaching.

Applying Piaget's theory results in specific recommendations for a given stage of cognitive development. For example, with children in the sensorimotor stage, teachers should try to provide a rich and stimulating environment with ample objects to play with. On the other hand, with children in the concrete operational stage, learning activities should involve problems of classification, ordering, location, conservation using concrete objects.

1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.

2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accomodation).

3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.

Key Issues

· How does learning occur?

As opposed to behaviourism, knowledge acquisition is measured by what learners know, not necessarily what they do. The learner processes symbols and grasps the meaning of symbols. The ability to distinguish between knowledge of concepts and knowledge of procedural steps involved in the concepts is critical. Knowledge is organized in "schema."

· Which factors influence learning?

The learner is viewed as an active participant in the knowledge acquisition process. In addition, instructional material that utilizes demonstrations, illustrative examples and corrective feedback are helpful in providing mental models that the learner can follow.

· What is the role of memory?

When new information can be stored in an organized, meaningful manner, learning has resulted. As long as the learner has the ability to organize, categorize and retrieve information - whether it be through cues, organizers, analogies - learning can be said to be accomplished.

· How does transfer occur?

Information is stored in memory in an organized manner. That is, the rules, concepts and knowledge of procedural steps are organized into a schema. When that information can be applied by the learner in different scenarios and contexts, then transfer has occurred.

· What types of learning are best explained by this theory?

Reasoning, problem solving, information processing and other complex forms of learning are appropriate. Any process which requires rules. Rules involve actions, If you run through the steps often enough, with positive feedback for encouragement, the procedure will be integrated into a single, smooth action.

· What basic assumptions/principles of this theory are relevant to instructional design?

The use of feedback to guide and support the learner to create accurate mental connections is a key component in the cognitive theory.

· How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?

It is important to understand the learner's existing mental structures. There is a reality that is socially imposed and universally agreed upon, one that the instructional designer must be able to assume exists for the learner. That way, the designer can use simulation to reflect real life situations.

· How should learning be evaluated?

At the outset, learners are given a sequence of learning activities that will enable them to reach the specified goals. They will know what they need to know and the procedures to solve the problem. As a result, evaluation should be criterion based. The learner is aware of and driven by the objectives.

Strengths of Cognitivism

· Because learners are trained to perform a function the same way based on specific cues, their behaviour will be consistent with others who are trained in the same manner.

· The context of a learner - their thoughts, beliefs and values are influential in the learning process.

Criticisms of Cognitivism

· As with behaviourism, the learner knows a certain way to do things based upon specific cues, but that way may not be the best, most efficient or safest way to do something in the advent of different environmental stresses or scenarios.

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).

According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.

Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture. However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labelled "learning disabled," "ADD (attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of thinking and learning aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or logical-mathematical classroom. The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way our schools are run. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more

Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society.

1. Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.

Howard Gardner is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, a critique of the notion that there exists one single human intelligence that can be assessed by standard psychometric instruments. The work of Howard Gardner has changed the way people think and work in education, in the arts, in cognitive psychology, and in medicine.

Linguistic

Linguistic Intelligence--involves having a mastery of language. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively manipulate language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically. It also allows one to use language as a means to remember information.

Children with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.

Logical-Mathematical

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence--consists of the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

Children with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence--is the ability to use one's mental abilities to coordinate one's own bodily movements. This intelligence challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.

These kids process knowledge through bodily sensations. They are often athletic, dancers or good at crafts such as sewing or woodworking.

Spatial

Spatial Intelligence--gives one the ability to manipulate and create mental images in order to solve problems. This intelligence is not limited to visual domains--Gardner notes that spatial intelligence is also formed in blind children.

These children think in images and pictures. They may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing, building with Legos or daydreaming.

Musical

Musical Intelligence--encompasses the capability to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. (Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence in relation to pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm.)

Musical children are always singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss. These kids are often discriminating listeners.

The Personal Intelligences

The Personal Intelligences--includes interpersonal feelings and intentions of others--and intrapersonal intelligence--the ability to understand one's own feelings and motivations. These two intelligences are separate from each other. Nevertheless, because of their close association in most cultures, they are often linked together.

Interpersonal

Children who are leaders among their peers, who are good at communicating and who seem to understand others' feelings and motives possess interpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal

These children may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated.

USING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN THE CLASSROOM

Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has several implications for teachers in terms of classroom instruction. The theory states that all seven intelligences are needed to productively function in society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as equally important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligences. Thus, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences implies that educators should recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills.

Another implication is that teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style which engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the revolutionary war, a teacher can show students battle maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and have the students read a novel about life during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students about learning, but it also allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide assortment of intelligences, teaching in this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject material.

Everyone is born possessing the seven intelligences. Nevertheless, all students will come into the classroom with different sets of developed intelligences. This means that each child will have his own unique set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses. These sets determine how easy (or difficult) it is for a student to learn information when it is presented in a particular manner. This is commonly referred to as a learning style. Many learning styles can be found within one classroom. Therefore, it is impossible, as well as impractical, for a teacher to accommodate every lesson to all of the learning styles found within the classroom. Nevertheless the teacher can show students how to use their more developed intelligences to assist in the understanding of a subject which normally employs their weaker intelligences. For example, the teacher can suggest that an especially musically intelligent child learn about the revolutionary war by making up a song about what happened.

INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Intellegence Type	Educational Activities
Linguistic	lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical	puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial	charts, diagrams, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily	hands-on, mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical	singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal	group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal	reflection, interest centres, personal values tasks
Naturalist	field trips, show and tell, plant and animal projects

SCHOLARS of CONSTRUCTUVISM

Much has been researched and written about constructivism by many eminent leaders in the fields of learning theory and cognition. Scholars such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and Howard Gardner have explored these ideas in-depth.

Bruner – every LAD needs its LASS